Elements of Good Critical Pedagogy and Best Practices for ELLs

By Imelda Basurto and Suzanne Jacquez Gorman

In 1974, the Supreme Court, in the well-known Lau vs. Nichols court case, required that schools provide English Language Learner (ELL) students with an education that met their language needs. However, the court did not say how this should be done. Consequently, many districts have varied vision and mission statements regarding English as a Second Language (ESL) and Bilingual Education. As a result, the types of instruction students receive varies based on the type of ESL or Bilingual Education model the school adopts.

Some school districts provide transitional bilingual programs that require ELL students to be mainstreamed into regular classrooms or submerge students into an intensive English-only program. However, others adopt two-way dual immersion bilingual programs which integrate language minority and language majority students in the same classroom with the goal of bilingual proficiency for both student groups or provide sheltered English instruction. Although the type of ESL or Bilingual Education program the school district chooses in supporting ELL students is very important, instructional planning is more important in meeting the needs of these students as well as linguistically diverse students (LDS).

While there are many ways to meet the needs of ELL and LDS students, the lack of instructional planning or considerations for language learner needs is often the result of untrained and in-experienced personnel in the areas of ESL and Bilingual Education pedagogy and instructional practices (Enright & McCloskey, 1988). A perusal of the research suggests that instruction for ELL and LDS students is more effective when instructional planning involves nine essential elements of Critical Pedagogy and best practices for multiple language learners (Collier & Ovando, 1998). These elements or teaching tips are:

1. Language Factors: Remembering that second and multiple language learners use similar acquisition strategies to those learning their first language. Teachers must recognize that a longer silent period is needed for students learning another language than for students learning a first language.

2. Language of Instruction: Utilization of all the languages present in the classroom when teaching. Care and consideration must be given to separate the languages of instruction so that each language gets equal development across the curriculum. It is important to use Critical Pedagogy as a means to promote intrinsic motivation on the part of the students. Students should use language actively in order to generate their own knowledge, and teachers should provide students with role models and environments in at least two languages of instruction.

3. Role of the Teacher: A willingness to take on a variety of roles, to coach, to model scientific processes, and to act as co-investigators when working with linguistically diverse students. Becoming advocates for this group of students and fighting for equitable educational opportunities in order to achieve the same high expectations of all students is essential. Teachers should be open to new ways of perceiving the world, including thinking about ways to transform power relations that exist within and outside the schools. They should be sensitive to the needs of all students regardless of language, color, race, religion, ethnicity, age, sex, etc. They should be culturally literate and accepting of all cultures. They should utilize collaborative decision-making in order to allow teachers and students to express their voice and learn from each other.

4. Instructional Practices: Awareness of current effective best practices in the regular classroom such as Brain-Based Learning, Multiple Intelligences, Cooperative Learning, Problem-Posing Education, and Reflective Thinking. Teachers should be knowledgeable of the different methodological approaches to teaching second and multiple language learners, such as the Grammar Translation Approach, Direct Language Method, Audio-lingual Method, Cognitive Approach, Total Physical Response, and the Natural Approach.

5. Background Knowledge: First language learning, like second or multiple language learning, is constructed from prior conceptual knowledge. Student experiences need to be incorporated into the learning environment.

6. Bi-Literacy Development: An awareness of how to teach literacy skills to second and multiple language learners. Teachers should use literacy in any language to transform the social, political, cultural, linguistic, and economic conditions of the student and society. When possible, teach students literacy skills in the first language because later these skills will transfer to the second language.

7. Assessment and Testing: Becoming active members in assessment of linguistically diverse students and providing students with opportunities to be assessed in appropriate language testing situations. It is important to use a variety of measures, such as norm-referenced or criterion-referenced evaluations, as well as performance-based assessments, such as portfolios, presentations, projects, writing samples, and experiments, in order to have an accurate picture of the whole learner.

8. Classroom Environments: creating environments open to risk-taking and voice. Students should feel safe to experiment with their language in a natural environment that promotes purposeful, relevant learning and builds self-esteem. The environment should be filled with examples of materials and objects in both languages that are of interest and are motivational to the learner.

9. Life skills - future citizenship: Teaching in a manner that gives linguistically diverse students the power to transform their own world by reading not only the word, but also the world. Teachers should become Critical Pedagogists.

While these nine elements are not to be taken as instructional commandments, they are key factors for thinking about and organizing instruction to meet the needs of all learners.

References

Collier, V. & Ovando, C. (1997). Bilingual and ESL Classrooms: Teaching in multicultural
contexts. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.

Enright, S. & McCloskey, M. (1988). Integrating English. New York, NY: Addison
Wesley Publishers.

Assessment

Bachman, L. (1992). What does language testing have to offer? TESOL Quarterly, 25, pp. 671-704.

Garcia, G. & Pearson, P. (1991). Literacy assessment in diverse settings. In Hiebert, E. (Ed.), Educational literacies for diverse societies. (pp. 253-278). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Background Knowledge

Heath, S. (1983). Ways with words. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

Rigg, P. & Allen, V. (1989). Introduction. When they all don' t speak English: the ESL student in the regular classroom. Edited by P. Rigg and V. Allen. Urbane, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.

Biliteracy Development

Elley, W. (1991). Acquiring literacy in a second language. Language Learning, 41, pp. 403-439.

Ferreira, E. & Tebrosky, A. (1982). Literacy before schooling. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Publishers.

Tinajero, J. & Ada, A. (1991). The power of two languages. Boston, MA:McGraw-Hill.

Classroom Environments

Freeman, D. & Freeman, Y. (1993). Strategies for the primary language of all. The Reading Teacher, 46 (7), pp. 552-558.

Wallace, C. (1988). Learning to read in a multicultural society. New York, NY: Prentice Hall.

Collaborative Teaching

Faltis, C. & Hudelson, S. (1998). Bilingual Education in elementary and secondary school communities. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon Publishers.

Shulman, J. & Bains, M. (1993). Diversity in the classroom: A casebook for teachers
and teacher educators. New York, NY: Earlbaum Publishers.

Cooperative Learning

Kagan, S. (1997). Cooperative learning SMART card. Kagan Cooperative Learning Publishers.

Kagan, S. & Andrini, B. (1991). Cooperative learning and mathematics: A multi-structural approach. Resources for Teachers, Inc.

Cultural Sensitivity

Spring, J. (1995). The intersection of cultures. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Sue, D. & Sue, D. (1990). Counseling the culturally different: Theory and practice. New York, NY: Wiley Publishers.

Higher Order Thinking Skills

Jensen, E. (I 996). Brain-based learning. Delmar, CA: Turning Point Publishing.

Wallerstein, N. (1987). Problem posing education. In Shor, I. (Ed.), Friere in the Classroom. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Publishers.

Instructional Practices

Richard-Amato, P. (1996). Making it happen. New York, NY: Addison Wesley Publishers.

Scarcella, R. (1990). Teaching language minority students in the multicultural classroom. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.

Charbonneau, M. & Reider, B. (1995). The integrated elementary classroom: A developmental model of education for the 21^s^t century. Bost, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Language Factors

Genese, F. (1987). Learning through two languages: Studies of immersion and bilingual education. Cambridge, MA: Newbury House.

Lindfors, J. (1987). Children' s language and learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Language of Instruction

Tharp, R. & Gallimore, R. (1989). Rousing young minds to life. Cambridge, MA:Cambridge University Press.

Wells, G. (1986). The meaning-makers: Children learning language and using language to learn. Portmouth, NH: Heinemann Publishers.

Life Skills

Freire , P. & Macedo, D. (1987). Literacy: Reading the word and the world. South Hadley, MA: Bergman and Garvey Publishers.

Kovalik, S. & Olsen, K. (1994). ITI: The model integrated thematic instruction. (3rd Edition). Kovington Square, WA: Susan Kovalik Associates.

Multiple Intelligences

Gardner, H. (1994). Frames of the mind. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Lazear, D. (1991). The artistry of teaching with multiple intelligences. Arlington Heights, IL: Skylight Training & Publishing, Inc.

Role of the Teacher

Girouz, H. (1988). Teachers as intellectuals. South Hadley, MA: Bergam and Garvey.

Oakes, J. (1985). Keeping track of how schools structure in-equality. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Imelda Basurto is an Associate Professor at Fresno State in Fresno, California. Suzanne Jacquez Gorman is the District English Language Coach at Santa Fe Public Schools in Santa Fe, New Mexico.


Elements of Good Critical Pedagogy and Best Practices for ELLs By Imelda Basurto and Suzanne Jacquez Gorman In 1974, the Supreme Court, in the well-known Lau vs. Nichols court case, required that schools provide English Language Learner (ELL) students with an education that met their language needs. However, the court did not say how this should be done. Consequently, many districts have varied vision and mission statements regarding English as a Second Language (ESL) and Bilingual Education. As a result, the types of instruction students receive varies based on the type of ESL or Bilingual Education model the school adopts. Some school districts provide transitional bilingual programs that require ELL students to be mainstreamed into regular classrooms or submerge students into an intensive English-only program. However, others adopt two-way dual immersion bilingual programs which integrate language minority and language majority students in the same classroom with the goal of bilingual proficiency for both student groups or provide sheltered English instruction. Although the type of ESL or Bilingual Education program the school district chooses in supporting ELL students is very important, instructional planning is more important in meeting the needs of these students as well as linguistically diverse students (LDS). While there are many ways to meet the needs of ELL and LDS students, the lack of instructional planning or considerations for language learner needs is often the result of untrained and in-experienced personnel in the areas of ESL and Bilingual Education pedagogy and instructional practices (Enright & McCloskey, 1988). A perusal of the research suggests that instruction for ELL and LDS students is more effective when instructional planning involves nine essential elements of Critical Pedagogy and best practices for multiple language learners (Collier & Ovando, 1998). These elements or teaching tips are: 1. Language Factors: Remembering that second and multiple language learners use similar acquisition strategies to those learning their first language. Teachers must recognize that a longer silent period is needed for students learning another language than for students learning a first language. 2. Language of Instruction: Utilization of all the languages present in the classroom when teaching. Care and consideration must be given to separate the languages of instruction so that each language gets equal development across the curriculum. It is important to use Critical Pedagogy as a means to promote intrinsic motivation on the part of the students. Students should use language actively in order to generate their own knowledge, and teachers should provide students with role models and environments in at least two languages of instruction. 3. Role of the Teacher: A willingness to take on a variety of roles, to coach, to model scientific processes, and to act as co-investigators when working with linguistically diverse students. Becoming advocates for this group of students and fighting for equitable educational opportunities in order to achieve the same high expectations of all students is essential. Teachers should be open to new ways of perceiving the world, including thinking about ways to transform power relations that exist within and outside the schools. They should be sensitive to the needs of all students regardless of language, color, race, religion, ethnicity, age, sex, etc. They should be culturally literate and accepting of all cultures. They should utilize collaborative decision-making in order to allow teachers and students to express their voice and learn from each other. 4. Instructional Practices: Awareness of current effective best practices in the regular classroom such as Brain-Based Learning, Multiple Intelligences, Cooperative Learning, Problem-Posing Education, and Reflective Thinking. Teachers should be knowledgeable of the different methodological approaches to teaching second and multiple language learners, such as the Grammar Translation Approach, Direct Language Method, Audio-lingual Method, Cognitive Approach, Total Physical Response, and the Natural Approach. 5. Background Knowledge: First language learning, like second or multiple language learning, is constructed from prior conceptual knowledge. Student experiences need to be incorporated into the learning environment. 6. Bi-Literacy Development: An awareness of how to teach literacy skills to second and multiple language learners. Teachers should use literacy in any language to transform the social, political, cultural, linguistic, and economic conditions of the student and society. When possible, teach students literacy skills in the first language because later these skills will transfer to the second language. 7. Assessment and Testing: Becoming active members in assessment of linguistically diverse students and providing students with opportunities to be assessed in appropriate language testing situations. It is important to use a variety of measures, such as norm-referenced or criterion-referenced evaluations, as well as performance-based assessments, such as portfolios, presentations, projects, writing samples, and experiments, in order to have an accurate picture of the whole learner. 8. Classroom Environments: creating environments open to risk-taking and voice. Students should feel safe to experiment with their language in a natural environment that promotes purposeful, relevant learning and builds self-esteem. The environment should be filled with examples of materials and objects in both languages that are of interest and are motivational to the learner. 9. Life skills - future citizenship: Teaching in a manner that gives linguistically diverse students the power to transform their own world by reading not only the word, but also the world. Teachers should become Critical Pedagogists. While these nine elements are not to be taken as instructional commandments, they are key factors for thinking about and organizing instruction to meet the needs of all learners. References Collier, V. & Ovando, C. (1997). Bilingual and ESL Classrooms: Teaching in multicultural contexts. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Enright, S. & McCloskey, M. (1988). Integrating English. New York, NY: Addison Wesley Publishers. Further Reading Assessment Bachman, L. (1992). What does language testing have to offer? TESOL Quarterly, 25, pp. 671-704. Garcia, G. & Pearson, P. (1991). Literacy assessment in diverse settings. In Hiebert, E. (Ed.), Educational literacies for diverse societies. (pp. 253-278). New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Background Knowledge Heath, S. (1983). Ways with words. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Rigg, P. & Allen, V. (1989). Introduction. When they all don' t speak English: the ESL student in the regular classroom. Edited by P. Rigg and V. Allen. Urbane, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. Biliteracy Development Elley, W. (1991). Acquiring literacy in a second language. Language Learning, 41, pp. 403-439. Ferreira, E. & Tebrosky, A. (1982). Literacy before schooling. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Publishers. Tinajero, J. & Ada, A. (1991). The power of two languages. Boston, MA:McGraw-Hill. Classroom Environments Freeman, D. & Freeman, Y. (1993). Strategies for the primary language of all. The Reading Teacher, 46 (7), pp. 552-558. Wallace, C. (1988). Learning to read in a multicultural society. New York, NY: Prentice Hall. Collaborative Teaching Faltis, C. & Hudelson, S. (1998). Bilingual Education in elementary and secondary school communities. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon Publishers. Shulman, J. & Bains, M. (1993). Diversity in the classroom: A casebook for teachers and teacher educators. New York, NY: Earlbaum Publishers. Cooperative Learning Kagan, S. (1997). Cooperative learning SMART card. Kagan Cooperative Learning Publishers. Kagan, S. & Andrini, B. (1991). Cooperative learning and mathematics: A multi-structural approach. Resources for Teachers, Inc. Cultural Sensitivity Spring, J. (1995). The intersection of cultures. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Sue, D. & Sue, D. (1990). Counseling the culturally different: Theory and practice. New York, NY: Wiley Publishers. Higher Order Thinking Skills Jensen, E. (I 996). Brain-based learning. Delmar, CA: Turning Point Publishing. Wallerstein, N. (1987). Problem posing education. In Shor, I. (Ed.), Friere in the Classroom. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Publishers. Instructional Practices Richard-Amato, P. (1996). Making it happen. New York, NY: Addison Wesley Publishers. Scarcella, R. (1990). Teaching language minority students in the multicultural classroom. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents. Charbonneau, M. & Reider, B. (1995). The integrated elementary classroom: A developmental model of education for the 21^s^t century. Bost, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Language Factors Genese, F. (1987). Learning through two languages: Studies of immersion and bilingual education. Cambridge, MA: Newbury House. Lindfors, J. (1987). Children' s language and learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Language of Instruction Tharp, R. & Gallimore, R. (1989). Rousing young minds to life. Cambridge, MA:Cambridge University Press. Wells, G. (1986). The meaning-makers: Children learning language and using language to learn. Portmouth, NH: Heinemann Publishers. Life Skills Freire , P. & Macedo, D. (1987). Literacy: Reading the word and the world. South Hadley, MA: Bergman and Garvey Publishers. Kovalik, S. & Olsen, K. (1994). ITI: The model integrated thematic instruction. (3rd Edition). Kovington Square, WA: Susan Kovalik Associates. Multiple Intelligences Gardner, H. (1994). Frames of the mind. New York, NY: Basic Books. Lazear, D. (1991). The artistry of teaching with multiple intelligences. Arlington Heights, IL: Skylight Training & Publishing, Inc. Role of the Teacher Girouz, H. (1988). Teachers as intellectuals. South Hadley, MA: Bergam and Garvey. Oakes, J. (1985). Keeping track of how schools structure in-equality. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Imelda Basurto is an Associate Professor at Fresno State in Fresno, California. Suzanne Jacquez Gorman is the District English Language Coach at Santa Fe Public Schools in Santa Fe, New Mexico.
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